Is America a Democracy or a Republic?

"Democracy" is a broad term that refers to a system of government in which supreme power is vested in the people and exercised by them directly or indirectly. This system branches into two main types: direct democracies and indirect democracies.

A direct democracy is a form of democracy in which the eligible electorate votes directly on policies and laws. A well-known example is Ancient Athens.

An indirect democracy, also known as a representative democracy, is a system in which elected officials vote on laws and policies on behalf of the people. A representative democracy can be further classified as liberal or illiberal:

• A liberal democracy is a representative democracy with the rule of law, protection for individual liberties and rights, and limitations on the power of elected representatives.
• An illiberal democracy is a representative democracy with weak or nonexistent limits on the power of elected representatives, allowing them to rule as they please.

Republics are also a form of government in which political power rests with the public through their representatives, who elect the head of state.

This contrasts with monarchies, where a monarch serves as head of state for life and often passes power through hereditary succession.

A republic becomes a constitutional republic when it is governed by a set of institutions that establish a separation of powers, such as the three branches of government in the United States:

• The legislative branch (makes the law)
• The executive branch (enforces the law)
• The judicial branch (interprets the law)

Thus, the United States can be accurately described as both a liberal representative democracy and a constitutional republic.

Political scientists and scholars continue to debate how the U.S. government functions in practice. This ongoing discussion has led to the term democratic republic, that the terms democracy and republic often feature overlapping concerns.

Understanding Democracy

To better understand how the United States functions as a democracy, let's hear from David Stasavage, the Dean for the Social Sciences and the Julius Silver Professor in NYU’s Department of Politics and an Affiliated Professor in NYU’s School of Law:‍

David Stasavage:

"When people think about democracy today and you ask them, 'What does democracy mean?' very commonly they'll say elections — you know, free and fair elections with multiple candidates from multiple political parties. But I want to suggest that that's not the definition of democracy.

That's the definition of a contemporary form of democracy that we have. Democracy itself has a deeper meaning about trying to give power to the people. Today, elections are the means by which we try to achieve that, but there have been other means of trying to give power to the people in other societies in the past.

Autocracy, I think of it as basically the opposite of democracy — one person ruling without the explicit consent of the governed. They often do this successfully by ruling through a bureaucracy rather than relying on members of society to counsel them in an assembly, legislature, or council. Instead, they rule through subordinates whom they have chosen, remunerated, and can hire and fire more or less at will."

Listen to the full episode on Democracy Works: What can we learn from early democracies?

Liberalism in Democracy

How does liberalism shape democracy in the United States? Christopher Beem, Managing Director of the McCourtney Institute for Democracy and Associate Research Professor in the Department of Political Science at Penn State University, explains the distinction between liberalism and democracy:

Christopher Beem:‍

"Liberalism is an adjective that describes democracy. Democracy, at its core, is majority rule—it’s about everyone having a vote. It’s the set of procedures that make real the idea that the people are sovereign in a society.

Liberalism, on the other hand, is a system of government that puts checks on itself and limits its own power to preserve individual liberties. That’s exactly why it’s important. I’ve argued, and still do, that if you accept democracy and equality in the way the framers did, that same equality is grounded in the idea that we all have fundamental rights.

Liberalism is about rights and the diffusion of power. So anytime you hear someone talking about democracy—except in cases like deliberative democracy or small-scale democratic processes—they’re actually referring to liberal democracy.

For example, we’ve discussed Hungary on this program before. Its leadership has explicitly argued for creating an 'illiberal democracy.' That means if the majority wants to curtail or diminish the rights of the press, minorities, LGBTQ+ individuals, refugees, or immigrants, they have the power to do so. In their view, democracy does not require liberal values to be legitimate."

However, some concerns have been raised about the role of liberalism in democracy. Francis Fukuyama, an American political scientist, political economist, international relations scholar, and author of Liberalism and Its Discontents, helps illuminate these concerns:

Francis Fukuyama:‍

"For many on the progressive left, the real problem with liberalism is that it’s slow. It operates through laws and procedural mechanisms that require respect for the rights of all people, including entrenched interests. That makes change difficult, which can be very frustrating.

No society has ever fully lived up to the ideal that everyone is treated equally under the law. That remains true in the United States today, despite our founding principles.

There are also economic sources of discontent. Liberal societies protect property rights, which has historically contributed to economic growth and prosperity. However, starting in the late 1970s and 1980s, we saw the rise of what’s now called neoliberalism—where market principles were taken to extremes. The role of government was diminished, deregulation led to financial instability, and inequality grew. That, in turn, fueled much of the populism we saw in the 2010s, as people became disillusioned with the world that emerged from those policies."

Listen to the full episode on Democracy Works: Francis Fukuyama on the promise and peril of liberalism

Liberalism vs Federalism 

How does liberalism compare to federalism? Federalism is a system of government in which the same territory is governed by multiple levels of authority. Typically, a national government oversees broad issues affecting the entire country, while states, cities, and local governments manage policies specific to their regions.

To better understand how federalism shapes governance in the United States, Francis Fukuyama explains its impact:

Francis Fukuyama:‍

"When it comes to fundamental equal rights—the rights of citizens and human beings—you can’t have federalism. That’s exactly what the Civil War was about.

Before the war, Southern states argued that they had voted for slavery, and after the war, they claimed they had the right to vote for segregation. They insisted that federalism meant the national government should leave them alone.

Abraham Lincoln, however, disagreed. In his debates with Stephen Douglas before the war, he argued that the principle of democracy does not override the principle that 'all men are created equal,' as stated in the Bill of Rights. That principle, he insisted, was dominant—giving the federal government the authority to override states’ rights in cases where fundamental human rights were at stake.

That’s why the 14th Amendment was passed: to ensure that no state could nullify those basic rights. This applies to essential freedoms, like the right to vote, the right to free speech, and the right to believe what you choose.

However, not everything requires national uniformity. Policies like policing, education, and local governance often vary from one region to another—and they probably should. The conditions in rural Louisiana are vastly different from those in San Francisco or Chicago.

So, it’s important to understand what kind of issue is being federalized. If it concerns basic rights, it must be enforced uniformly. But for other policy areas, flexibility and regional variation are necessary."

Listen to the full episode on Democracy Works: Francis Fukuyama on the promise and peril of liberalism

Representation in Democracy

If we are indeed a representative democracy, what does that mean for citizens like you and me? How do we ensure that we are truly represented? Let's hear from David Stasavage and Chris Beem as they give us some food for thought about our role in maintaining democracy:

David Stasavage:

"I think representative democracy is a system people have developed to effectively run a democracy on a larger scale than was possible in the past.

But we need to recognize the potential weaknesses of modern democracy and figure out how to address them. Today, everyone has the chance to participate politically, but that participation tends to be relatively shallow compared to how people would have engaged in a village council centuries ago.

Our participation is often sporadic. For most people, political engagement amounts to voting every few years—and that’s it. When that happens, there’s a real risk that people will start to feel disconnected from the government, seeing it as distant and problematic.

If we want to maintain a functioning democratic system, it’s up to us—the people—to take action. It’s not someone else’s responsibility to figure it out."

Listen to the full episode on Democracy Works: What can we learn from early democracies?

‍

Chris Beem:‍

"I want to quote a few stanzas from Langston Hughes' poem, 'Democracy.' The lines are: 'I have as much right as the other fellow to stand on my own two feet and own the land.'

I think that’s about as good a summary as I can make. A good Democrat recognizes that everyone has those rights. Everyone has an equal standing, just as much as the other fellow.

By affirming the rights of the other fellow, I’m also affirming my own right to stand on my own feet. And when Hughes says 'own the land,' it strikes me that he’s not only talking about ownership—he’s talking about having a role to play, something proprietary about the land. You’re claiming a stake in it, a responsibility that comes with it.

That responsibility extends to your behavior, your voting, and your engagement in the world—coming to understand what you think and believe, and then affirming those beliefs with others.

To truly live up to that, you must recognize that you have as much right as anyone else to stand on your own two feet and own the land. That’s a powerful statement."*

So hopefully, this gives you a deeper understanding of what’s going on under the hood of our system of government.”

Listen to the full episode on Future Hindsight: Democratic Thinking and Acting: Christopher Beem

Conclusion

In examining whether America is a democracy or a republic, it becomes clear that our system is a complex blend of both, shaped by the interplay of liberalism, federalism, and representation. The United States operates as a liberal representative democracy, where the rule of law and individual rights are fundamental, while simultaneously functioning as a constitutional republic with a separation of powers.

As we’ve explored, democracy is not just about elections—it’s about ensuring power resides with the people, something that has evolved over time. Christopher Beem’s insight into how liberalism protects individual rights within democracy highlights the importance of checks and balances in safeguarding freedoms. However, as Francis Fukuyama notes, liberalism also has its challenges, particularly when it comes to economic disparities and the slow pace of change.

Federalism, while allowing for local autonomy, also demands that fundamental rights be uniformly protected, as seen in the aftermath of the Civil War and the passage of the 14th Amendment. The balance between national and state power remains a crucial point of discussion in how we govern effectively and equitably.

Lastly, as David Stasavage and Chris Beem emphasize, true democracy requires more than just voting—it calls for active, engaged citizens who recognize their responsibility to participate and contribute to the democratic process. Langston Hughes’ poetic reflection on democracy underscores the equality and shared responsibility that lie at the heart of democratic participation.

Ultimately, America’s system of governance is both democratic and republican, but it relies on an informed and active populace to ensure its ideals of equality, liberty, and justice continue to thrive. The power lies in our hands, and it’s up to us to uphold and nurture the democracy we’ve inherited.